Monkeypox, a zoonotic disease caused by an orthopoxvirus, results in a smallpox-like disease in humans. Since monkeypox in humans was initially diagnosed in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), it has spread to other regions of Africa (primarily West and Central), and cases outside Africa have emerged in recent years. We conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature on how monkeypox epidemiology has evolved, with particular emphasis on the number of confirmed, probable, and/or possible cases, age at presentation, mortality, and geographical spread. The review is registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020208269). We identified 48 peer-reviewed articles and 18 grey literature sources for data extraction.
The number of human monkeypox cases has been on the rise since the 1970s, with the most dramatic increases occurring in the DRC. The median age at presentation has increased from 4 (1970s) to 21 years (2010-2019). There was an overall case fatality rate of 8.7%, with a significant difference between clades-Central African 10.6% (95% CI: 8.4%- 13.3%) vs. West African 3.6% (95% CI: 1.7%- 6.8%). Since 2003, import- and travel-related spread outside of Africa has occasionally resulted in outbreaks. Interactions/activities with infected animals or individuals are risk behaviors associated with acquiring monkeypox.
Our review shows an escalation of monkeypox cases, especially in the highly endemic DRC, a spread to other countries, and a growing median age from young children to young adults. These findings may be related to the cessation of smallpox vaccination, which provided some cross-protection against monkeypox, leading to increased human-to-human transmission. The appearance of outbreaks beyond Africa highlights the global relevance of the disease. Increased surveillance and detection of monkeypox cases are essential tools for understanding the continuously changing epidemiology of this resurging disease.
Human Monkey Pox Virus Infection in Plateau State, North Central Nigeria: A Report of Two Cases
Background: Human Monkey Pox Virus (HMPV) infection is a zoonotic infection that is endemic in the Congo basin and West Africa. Its similarity to smallpox infection, increased susceptibility infection in human populations, lack of a definitive therapy and its potential for use as a bioterrorism tool underscores its public health importance.
Objective: To describe the characteristics of HMPV infection in Plateau State, North Central Nigeria.
Methods: This was a case study of HMPV infection occurring in two Nigerian adults, seen in 2018, at Bingham University Teaching Hospital in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. The cases involved two siblings, and these were the first reported cases in Plateau State of Nigeria, which has an estimated population of 3.5 million persons. The diagnosis was based on a combination of clinical features and positive PCR tests on samples from the skin lesions and blood.
Results: The first case, a 20-year-old male, presented with a one week history of fever, headache, pain on swallowing and micturition, and generalised skin lesions. The second case is a 20 year old step brother of the first case, and the primary care provider to first case when he took ill. He also presented with a one-week history of fever, headache, pain on swallowing, and skin lesions which were less intense than in the first case. PCR assays of samples from the skin lesions and blood were positive in both cases. The other comorbidity in both cases was pharyngotonsillitis. Blood, throat, stool, and urine cultures for suspected sepsis and urinary tract infection were all negative. Both cases were admitted and discharged after receiving a course of antibiotics, antihistamine, Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs, and multivitamins. Universal precautions were observed.
Conclusion: HMPV infection in our environment underscores the need to strengthen preventive health strategies against this infection.
Contexte: L’infection par le virus de la variole humaine du singe (VMPS) est une zoonose endémique dans le bassin du Congo et en Afrique de l’Ouest. Sa similitude de l’infection variole augmenté l’infection susceptibilité dans les populations humaines, l’absence d’une thérapie définitive et son potentiel d’utilisation comme outil de bioterrorisme souligne son importance pour la santé publique.
Objectif: Décrire les caractéristiques de l’infection par le HMPV dans l’État du Plateau, dans le centre-nord du Nigeria.
Méthodes: Il s’agit d’une étude de cas d’une infection à HMPV survenue chez deux adultes nigérians vus en 2018 à l’hôpital universitaire Bingham de Jos Teaching Hospital à Jos, dans l’État du Plateau, au Nigeria. Les cas impliquaient deux frères et sœurs, et il s’agissait des premiers cas signalés dans l’État du Plateau du Nigeria, dont la population est estimée à 3,5 millions de personnes. Le diagnostic était basé sur une combinaison de caractéristiques cliniques et de tests PCR positifs sur des échantillons provenant des lésions cutanées et du sang.
Résultats: Le premier cas, un homme de 20 ans, s’est présenté avec un historique d’une semaine de fièvre, de maux de tête et de douleurs, de douleur à la déglutition et à la miction, et de lésions cutanées généralisées. Le deuxième cas est un demi-frère de 20 ans du premier cas, et le principal et le fournisseur de soins primaires du premier cas lorsqu’il est tombé malade. Il a également présenté une semaine de fièvre, de maux de tête, de douleur à la déglutition et des lésions cutanées qui étaient moins intenses que dans le premier cas.
L’ analyse PCR des échantillons de lésions cutanées et de sang étaient positifs dans les deux cas. L’’autre comorbidité dans les deux cas était pharyngotonsillite. Les cultures de sang, de la gorge, des selles et de l’urine pour une suspicion de septicémie et d’infection des voies urinaires étaient toutes négatives. Les deux cas ont été admis et ont quitté l’hôpital après avoir reçu une série d’antibiotiques, d’antihistaminiques et de médicaments, d’antibiotiques, d’antihistaminiques, d’anti-inflammatoires non stéroïdiens et des multivitamines. Les précautions universelles ont été observées.
Conclusion: L’infection par le HMPV dans notre environnement souligne la nécessité de renforcer les stratégies sanitaires préventives contre cette infection.
Transmission dynamics of Monkeypox virus: a mathematical modelling approach
Monkeypox (MPX), similar to both smallpox and cowpox, is caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). It occurs mostly in remote Central and West African communities, close to tropical rain forests. It is caused by the monkeypox virus in the Poxviridae family, which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. We develop and analyse a deterministic mathematical model for the monkeypox virus.
Monkeypox Virus -MPXV- IgG ELISA Kit |
|||
| E-EL-E620-24Tests | Elabscience Biotech | 24 Tests | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus -MPXV- IgG ELISA Kit |
|||
| E-EL-E620-48Tests | Elabscience Biotech | 48 Tests | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus -MPXV- IgG ELISA Kit |
|||
| E-EL-E620-96Tests | Elabscience Biotech | 96 Tests | 500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus -MPXV- IgG ELISA Kit |
|||
| E-EL-E620-96Tests10 | Elabscience Biotech | 96 Tests *10 | 5000 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus -MPXV- IgG ELISA Kit |
|||
| E-EL-E620-96Tests5 | Elabscience Biotech | 96 Tests *5 | 2500 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG (MPXV IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx392298-100g | Abbexa | 100 µg | 593.75 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG (MPXV IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx092187-100l | Abbexa | 100 µl | 525 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG (MPXV IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx092187-1ml | Abbexa | 1 ml | Ask for price |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG (MPXV IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx092187-200l | Abbexa | 200 µl | Ask for price |
Human Monkeypox Virus M1R IgG (MPXV M1R IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395182-100g | Abbexa | 100 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus H3L IgG (MPXV H3L IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395183-25g | Abbexa | 25 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus E8L IgG (MPXV E8L IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395184-50g | Abbexa | 50 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus A29L IgG (MPXV A29L IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395181-50g | Abbexa | 50 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus A35R IgG (MPXV A35R IgG) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395185-100g | Abbexa | 100 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) IgG ELISA Ki |
|||
| MBS2569817-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 2140 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) IgG ELISA Ki |
|||
| MBS2569817-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 475 EUR |
Human Monkeypox IgG/IgM Lateral Flow Assay Kit |
|||
| MBS2569815-20Tests | MyBiosource | 20Tests | 265 EUR |
Human Monkeypox IgG/IgM Lateral Flow Assay Kit |
|||
| MBS2569815-50Tests | MyBiosource | 50Tests | 445 EUR |
MonkeyPox Virus (MPV) ELISA Kit |
|||
| SL0026Mk | Sunlong | - | Ask for price |
MonkeyPox Virus (MPV) ELISA Kit |
|||
| YX-SL0036Mk | Sunlong | - | Ask for price |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG/IgM (MPXV IgG/IgM) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092183-100l | Abbexa | 100 µl | 1000 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG/IgM (MPXV IgG/IgM) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092183-1ml | Abbexa | 1 ml | 12000 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgG/IgM (MPXV IgG/IgM) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092183-200l | Abbexa | 200 µl | 3500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A29 ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS8124546-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 3465 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A29 ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS8124546-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 750 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS9145476-005mL | MyBiosource | 0.05mL | 210 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS9145476-01mL | MyBiosource | 0.1mL | 285 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS9145476-02mL | MyBiosource | 0.2mL | 430 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS9145476-5x02mL | MyBiosource | 5x0.2mL | 1790 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS9145476-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 570 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L ELISA Kit |
|||
| RK04609 | Abclonal | 96T | 322.37 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) H3L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564873-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 4500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) H3L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564873-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 975 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564875-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 4500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) E8L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564875-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 975 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) M1R Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564876-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 4500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) M1R Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564876-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 975 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A35R Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564874-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 4500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A35R Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564874-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 975 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A29L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564877-5x96Tests | MyBiosource | 5x96Tests | 4500 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) A29L Antigen ELISA Kit |
|||
| MBS1564877-96Tests | MyBiosource | 96Tests | 975 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus Antigen (MPXV) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx365123-100g | Abbexa | 100 µg | 618.75 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus IgM (MPXV IgM) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx392299-100g | Abbexa | 100 µg | 593.75 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus M1R (MPXV M1R) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395187-50g | Abbexa | 50 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus H3L (MPXV H3L) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395188-1mg | Abbexa | 1 mg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus E8L (MPXV E8L) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395189-1mg | Abbexa | 1 mg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus A29L (MPXV A29L) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395186-50g | Abbexa | 50 µg | 812.5 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus A35R (MPXV A35R) ELISA Kit |
|||
| abx395190-1mg | Abbexa | 1 mg | 812.5 EUR |
Monkeypox B5R |
|||
| mpv-002 | ProSpec Tany | 100µg | 200 EUR |
Monkeypox A33R |
|||
| mpv-001 | ProSpec Tany | 100µg | 200 EUR |
Monkeypox virus |
|||
| Oneq-VH747-OneqVH747100D | Bioingentech | Oneq-VH747-100D | 515 EUR |
Monkeypox virus |
|||
| Oneq-VH747-OneqVH747150D | Bioingentech | Oneq-VH747-150D | 594 EUR |
Monkeypox virus |
|||
| Oneq-VH747-OneqVH74750D | Bioingentech | Oneq-VH747-50D | 413 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus, 20 tests/kit |
|||
| U202028-20 | USTAR Biotechnologies (Hangzhou) | test | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) RT-PCR Kit |
|||
| abx471001-1096tests | Abbexa | 10 × 96 tests | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) RT-PCR Kit |
|||
| abx471001-596tests | Abbexa | 5 × 96 tests | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) RT-PCR Kit |
|||
| abx471001-96tests | Abbexa | 96 tests | 2550 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time PCR Kit |
|||
| PDPS-AR064 | Creative Biogene | 1 unit | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time PCR Kit |
|||
| ZD-0076-01 | Gentaur Genprice | 25 tests/kit | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time PCR Kit |
|||
| ZD-0076-02 | Gentaur Genprice | 25 tests/kit | Ask for price |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time PCR Kit |
|||
| YJC70115NW-25T | Jiangsu Bioperfectus Technologies | 25 tests/kit | Ask for price |
PCR detection kit for Monkeypox Virus |
|||
| DA1430 | Daan Gene | 24 test/kit | 129.6 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox B5R |
|||
| MBS141734-01mg | MyBiosource | 0.1mg | 360 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox B5R |
|||
| MBS141734-05mg | MyBiosource | 0.5mg | 960 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox B5R |
|||
| MBS141734-1mg | MyBiosource | 1mg | 1565 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox B5R |
|||
| MBS141734-5x1mg | MyBiosource | 5x1mg | 6715 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus Detection Kit (RT-PCR) |
|||
| SYNT-RTPCR-24 | Nanjing Synthgene Medical Technology | 24 test/kit | Ask for price |
Recombinant Monkeypox A33R |
|||
| MBS141733-01mg | MyBiosource | 0.1mg | 360 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox A33R |
|||
| MBS141733-05mg | MyBiosource | 0.5mg | 960 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox A33R |
|||
| MBS141733-1mg | MyBiosource | 1mg | 1565 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox A33R |
|||
| MBS141733-5x1mg | MyBiosource | 5x1mg | 6715 EUR |
EasyNAT Monkeypox Virus Assay |
|||
| U202028 | USTAR Biotechnologies (Hangzhou) | test | Ask for price |
MIRA Monkeypox Virus Fluorescence Detection Kit |
|||
| WLDR21089K48 | Amp-Future Biotech | 48 Tests/Box | Ask for price |
Monkeypox virus L1R, His Tag |
|||
| S0A2002 | Starter Biotechnology Co Ltd |
|
|
Monkeypox virus M1R, His Tag |
|||
| S0A2014 | Starter Biotechnology Co Ltd |
|
|
Monkeypox virus A35R, His Tag |
|||
| S0A2009 | Starter Biotechnology Co Ltd |
|
|
Monkeypox virus A35R, His Tag |
|||
| S0A2013 | Starter Biotechnology Co Ltd |
|
|
Monkeypox Virus Real Time qPCR Kit（UDG plus） |
|||
| 13863ES25 | Yeasen Biotechnology | 25 T | 140 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time qPCR Kit（UDG plus） |
|||
| 13863ES60 | Yeasen Biotechnology | 100 T | 435 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus Real Time qPCR Kit（UDG plus） |
|||
| 13863ES80 | Yeasen Biotechnology | 1000 T | 3575 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus antigen |
|||
| E41H094 | EnoGene | 100ug | 495 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus antigen |
|||
| E41H095 | EnoGene | 100ug | 495 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus Nucleic Acid Detection Kit-Liquid |
|||
| R60101T2050 | Jiangsu Mole Bioscience Co.,Ltd | 50 Tests/Kit | Ask for price |
Human Monkeypox Virus Antigen (MPXV) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092162-100l | Abbexa | 100 µl | 1000 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus Antigen (MPXV) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092162-1ml | Abbexa | 1 ml | 12000 EUR |
Human Monkeypox Virus Antigen (MPXV) Rapid Test Kit |
|||
| abx092162-200l | Abbexa | 200 µl | 3500 EUR |
Native Monkeypox virus A35R protein |
|||
| A35R-01M | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV-A29L) Antibody |
|||
| MBS5680248-02mg | MyBiosource | 0.2mg | 725 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV-A29L) Antibody |
|||
| MBS5680248-5x02mg | MyBiosource | 5x0.2mg | 3055 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV-A29L) Antibody |
|||
| MBS5680249-02mg | MyBiosource | 0.2mg | 725 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus (MPXV-A29L) Antibody |
|||
| MBS5680249-5x02mg | MyBiosource | 5x0.2mg | 3055 EUR |
Monkeypox C19L protein (C-His tag) |
|||
| EGPS018D-50 | EnoGene | Monkeypox | 206.5 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus DNA ligase |
|||
| MPXV-0435 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus E3 Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0470 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus E6 Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0479 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus I3 Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0578 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) E8L Rabbit mAb |
|||
| A23087 | Abclonal | 500μL | 138.16 EUR |
Monkeypox virus E8L Protein, His Tag |
|||
| MBS189187-001mg | MyBiosource | 0.01mg | 260 EUR |
Monkeypox virus E8L Protein, His Tag |
|||
| MBS189187-005mg | MyBiosource | 0.05mg | 560 EUR |
Monkeypox virus E8L Protein, His Tag |
|||
| MBS189187-5x005mg | MyBiosource | 5x0.05mg | 2225 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus H3L Recombinant Antigen |
|||
| MBS318941-05mg | MyBiosource | 0.5mg | 1775 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus H3L Recombinant Antigen |
|||
| MBS318941-5x05mg | MyBiosource | 5x0.5mg | 7740 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus P4a Recombinant Antigen |
|||
| MBS318942-05mg | MyBiosource | 0.5mg | 1775 EUR |
Monkeypox Virus P4a Recombinant Antigen |
|||
| MBS318942-5x05mg | MyBiosource | 5x0.5mg | 7740 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A15.5L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0034 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A32.5L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0085 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A3L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0112 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A47 Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0138 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A51 Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0153 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A5L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0159 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus A7L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0165 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B2R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0254 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B3R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0256 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B5R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0266 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B6R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0268 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B7R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0272 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B8R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0277 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus B9R Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0281 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus C1L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0316 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
Recombinant Monkeypox Virus C2L Protein |
|||
| MPXV-0328 | Creative BioMart | 100ug | 3198.4 EUR |
- Both local and global asymptotic stability conditions for disease-free and endemic equilibria are determined. It is shown that the model undergo backward bifurcation, where the locally stable disease-free equilibrium co-exists with an endemic equilibrium.
- Furthermore, we determine conditions under which the disease-free equilibrium of the model is globally asymptotically stable. Finally, numerical simulations to demonstrate our findings and brief discussions are provided.
- The findings indicate that isolation of infected individuals in the human population helps to reduce disease transmission.
